The Influence of Art on Common People

The Influence of Art on Common People Art is a medium of self-expression; it can also be a challenge that intimidates people. Art can influence common people in many ways: â€Å"It could be a source of inspiration for people with hidden artistic skill; it could ignite the passion to create something of beauty; it could unblock fears and insecurities,† wrote author Molly Prather in her article, â€Å"How does art influence people? † Or it could easily be ignored. Dr. Margarita Cole, an art appreciation instructor at HCC, defines common people as those who are not exposed to art or those who are not familiar with visiting museums.This includes people who consider art alien. She talked about the influence of art on common people saying, â€Å"Some people ignore art or consider it weird. Others ask themselves what is this for? Many of them do not find answer. But for some people who find in art an answer, it is a discovery. † Sharon Hendry, a graphic designer, artist and HCC instructor, has another point of view: â€Å"Artists have two main objectives when they do art: One is to put something in a visual format to express a message; and second is that they use art as a medium of communication. Art can communicate without words,† she added.Common people are affected by art in different ways. Hendry said, â€Å"People react when they look at an artwork filtering their emotions through their personal experiences, their personal history. † â€Å"The way people are affected by art,† Dr. Cole said, â€Å"depends a lot on their upbringing — the amount of exposure to art that they have and what is their conception of beauty. † Art is a medium of communication and it can have a deep impact, or be very tenuous. â€Å"If we are open to art, we can take advantage of it; if we are closed to it, there is no way,† Dr. Cole commented. She added, â€Å"Deep (art’s communication) as you allow it to go.If you allo w yourself to feel the soul of the artist you are going deep. † Hendry made an example about communication â€Å"When you text a message in your cell phone, you are trying to communicate with somebody. The other person could receive or deny your message. If the person that you are trying to communicate with sends you a response, you are establishing communication. The only way that an artist knows if his artwork communicates a message is when he receives feedback,† she added. Some people are reluctant to engage with art maybe because they do not want to allow a communication with it.Dr. Cole talked about a case: â€Å"A student came to me after class and told me about a collage assignment; he was trying to work on it but it was very difficult to do and he could not finish it. Actually, he was not scared about the work otherwise; he was showing his insecurity to do the task. We can put people in front of a challenge and some will say: ‘Okay let’s do it. â⠂¬â„¢ Others will react the opposite way, refusing to do it when in fact, they are reacting to their fears. † â€Å"Art can serve as inspiration to awaken the imagination, talent and skill hiding in someone.It can unlock your fears and insecurities about creating,† Prather wrote. Hendry corroborated this, saying, â€Å"This is why art is important to me in my life. All those thing —inspires creativity, discovers hidden talent and unlocks fears and insecurities — have helped me and helped my students. † Anna Reyner, an art therapist, wrote the article â€Å"Art Influences Learning† in which she said, â€Å"Much has been written about how art enhances creativity, imagination, and self-esteem, but far less is said about how art encourages cognition, critical thinking, and learning. † She mentions the U.S. Secretary of Education report, â€Å"The Value Added Benefits of the Arts,† which states, â€Å"Studies have shown that arts te aching and learning can increase student’s cognitive and social development. The arts can be the link for students in developing the crucial thinking skills and motivations they need to achieve at higher levels. † In the same article Reyner wrote, â€Å"Our current education system places great emphasis on academic development. As a result, arts programs are being reduced or even eliminated from classrooms to accommodate more didactic teaching methods. Broadly speaking, are common people aware at the importance of art as a part of children’s education? Dr. Cole opined, â€Å"If they are not exposed to art, they are not going to be able to do anything. † Dr. Cole said, â€Å"My students have to go to museums as a part of the class requirements, but a lot of them are not interested and are reluctant to do the assignment. If you are not exposed to art, it is likely the next generation will not be exposed to art either. † â€Å"Politics is more advoca tes trying to make money,† Hendry commented. Consequently, art is not a priority in the line of their funding. † Art is present in everyday routines in many ways. Many people are aware of it while others are not; still others are indifferent. Promoting the benefits of art could be a difficult task. â€Å"To promote art,† Dr. Cole said, â€Å"we have to expose people to art, encourage them to visit museums, and also educate gallery personnel to bring friendly treatment. Some people go to museums and get out angry because of the bad treatment by the personnel.Educating gallery personnel is very important if you want to promote art. † â€Å"Parents have to encourage children to be involved in art,† Hendry commented, â€Å"but many times they are very busy or they do not know how beneficial art is on their children’s educational process. † â€Å"Children learn best when both sides of their brains are stimulated,† writer Kevin Crocket t said in the online article â€Å"How Art Influences Childhood-Development? † â€Å"This occurs when the learning environment is both participatory and interactive.The modern classroom does have a participatory side but it is sorely lacking in interactivity. Drawing and art is one of the best ways to bring interactivity into your child’s life. † â€Å"Art has to be included in the raising of child,† Dr. Cole stressed. â€Å"It is very important to encourage trips to museums, developing child interaction with artworks. † â€Å"Do not under estimate the importance of creativity, the ability to think abstractly (out of the box). The best thinkers, inventors, and entrepreneurs of our time have a healthy dose of right brain influence,† wrote Crockett.

Media Worldview

Brandy Cain March 2, 2013 CVW 101 G. Malloy Media Worldview The movie I chose was It’s A Wonderful Life. It is one of my favorite movies. I think it’s a classic and everyone should watch it at least once. The movie is based on the life of George Bailey. You know from the beginning that the worldview is Christian because it starts with everyone praying for George. George is a troubled man going thru a hard time and an angel named Clarence Odbody comes down to show him how different his life would be if he had never been born.Clarence has to save George so he can obtain his wings. The head angels Franklin and Joseph show Clarence Georges life up till now. George lives in New Bedford, NY. It’s a small town where everyone knows everyone. George’s father owns the Bailey Building and Loan Association. From when George was a child to his adult life the Bailey Building and Loan Association is in danger of going out of business. George Bailey is the type of person who sacrifices his own dreams for those of others. When George was 12 he saved his baby brother Harry after he falls into a frozen pond.He ended up losing his earring after getting a cold from being in the freezing water. George worked at the local pharmacy. He realized that the druggist, Mr. Gower, has just received a telegram saying that his son had died. He was so distraught that he put poison in a pill supposed to be given to a child. George notices this and doesn’t deliver the medicine. The druggist is so mad that he hits George in his bad ear. George then explains to Mr. Gower that he made a mistake. Mr. Gower forgives George. After graduating high school George goes to work at the Bailey Building to save money to go to college.It takes him 4 years and his brother Harry is now graduating from high school. George’s dad wishes he could send both of his sons to college at the same time. George explains that Harry can do the same thing as he has done. George goes to celebrate Harry’s graduation. He dances with Mary Hatch who has had a crush on George for years. One of the other guys who was after Mary was upset that George stole her from him so he plays a prank on them. Underneath the dance floor opens up to a swimming pool. George and Mary were dancing on the crack of the floor.When the floor starts to open George and Mary are unaware and think that they must be dancing every good. They fall in and start dancing in the pool. Everyone see how much fun they are having so they jump in. That same night George’s father dies from a stroke. George has to put his plans on seeing the world on hold to run his father’s company. Harry and Mary go off to college leaving George behind. Four years Harry returns with a wife whose father has given him an excellent opportunity that George can’t let Harry pass up.George goes to visit Mary and professes his love to her and a few months later they get married. After their wedding the Ba iley Building is about to be foreclosed upon and George and Mary take the $2000 saved for their honeymoon and give it to the customers. George and Mary have four children: Pete, Susan, Tommy, and Zuzu. George building Bailey Park an affordable housing project. On the day the bank examiner comes George’s uncle Billy has lost the $8000 they owe. They try and trace down his tracks but do not find the money. George tries to get a loan and fails.He lashes out at his family because he is so distraught. It’s Christmas Eve and he decided to go to the bar and get drunk. He runs is car into a tree and feels he would be worth more dead than alive and stands on top of the bridge about to jump. Clarence his angel shows George Potterville. George sees his life is worth something and heads home. He is greeted with friends and family giving him money to save him from bank fraud. Clarence was able to get his wings. You know his happens when George’s daughter hears a bell and say s, â€Å"Every time a bell rings an angel gets his wings. †

Online Job Portal

| ONLINE JOB PORTAL Project Duration: Two Months | | | | team membersShivanjali garg kejung kimsing arushi meenaclass teachermrs. uma sharmab. sC (hons) computer science (4th semester)| | ARSD CollegeUniversity of Delhi2012-2013 Academic Year| | 1. Introduction 2. 1 Purpose 2. 2 Scope 2. 3 Functional Requirements 2. 4 Definitions, Acronyms and Abbreviations 2. 5 Objective 2. 6 References 2. 7 Technologies to be used 2. 8 Overview 2. Overall Description 3. 9 Product Functions 3. 10 User Characteristics 3. 1 Constraints 3. 12 Process Model 3. 13 Architectural Design 3. 14. 1 Data Flow Diagram (DFD) 3. 14. 2 Data Dictionary 3. 14. 3 Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) 3. 14. 4 Sequence Diagram 3. 14 Use case Model Survey 3. 15 Timeline Chart(Gantt Chart) 3. Estimation 4. 16 Problem Based Estimation (Function Point Metrics) 4. Risk Table and RMMM plan 5. Structure design Methodology 6. Testing Software Requirements Specification 1. 0 Introduction â€Å"Online Job portal† is a web-ba sed application, which helps end user to finding a job with searching criteria like preferred location, job type, work profile and packages.One can post his/her details on this portal with all relative information. There are many respective facilities given to end user. This application provides logins to the end user and Employer type. End user can Create, edit and delete information by using his/her user ID and password. Whereas Employer can search the profiles. Application takes care of all the security issues so that only the authorize logins and even only the computers can access the relevant information. There are three primary users in this application: 1. Job Seekers 2. Employer and 3. AdministratorThe system administrator will have the ability to clean, clear and maintain the database and the whole system management issue. I. Administrator 1. Verify users account given them right to access the right 2. Block a user 3. Create categories on job 4. Create subcategories on the type of job II. Employers 1. Create vacancies for job seekers 2. Search candidates based on their profiles 3. Can schedule an interview with technical professionals 4. Can select interviewers 5. Can send email to selected candidates III. Jobseekers 1. Create an account with a complete profile 2. Search for jobs with different categories 3.Edit/update the profile 4. Apply online for jobs 1. 1 Purpose Computerized Online Job Search System is developed to facilitate the General Administrative system to manage the various information of the Job Seeker and Job Provider and the processes involved in a Placement company. So that, the organization can access accurate information quickly and easily as and when required, thereby improving its operational efficiency and effectiveness. In today’s competitive environment, where everybody is on the top, the Information plays very crucial roles. As far as information is accessed and processed, it can give good result.Today internet is a fas t way of transferring Data and Information over wide area, hence we have used internet as a way for exchanging information. Computerized Systems helps to fulfill these goals. Computerization of the official works will help in doing lot of manual work quickly. It will help in easy storage and access of all information, in short period of time. This way convenience will prevail both for the Job Seeker and the Job Provider. The development of this new website contains the following activities, which try to automate the entire process keeping in the view of database integration approach. This Site Can provide the recruitment information sending option for the Job providers * This website can provide the mail alert and mobile alert facility for the jobseekers * Administrator can control both job provider’s and as well as jobseeker’s Information 1. 2 Scope The scope of the Online Job Portal includes the following key points: 1. It should contain all the information about Com panies and Vacancies which is in this site. 2. It should contain all the information of Job seeker such as * Personal Details * Professional Details * Educational Detail etc. 3.It should process and evaluate job registered by companies. 4. It should contain information related to Job expiry and registration. 5. It should have administrator for scheduling administrative work of site. 1. 3 Functional Requirements †¢ The System should enable Project Managers to submit their job requirements to the HR for posting. †¢ System should incorporate an approval cycle where the HR validates the submitted job posting before posting to the portal †¢ On Approval, the job posting is assigned to an Internal Sourcing Team, who will receive a notification of the new job posting. System should enable Internal Sourcing Team to recommend applicants for associated jobs to the Project Manager †¢ System should enable employees to view and apply different jobs, allow discussions about job s etc. †¢ System should enable Project Managers to View their Job Postings, Applicant details and their profiles for a particular Job Posting, Recommended Applicant details and their profiles for a particular Job Posting Comments or Activities on different postings etc.. †¢ On successful selection, system should enable project Managers to close the job posting and the status of the job should reflect as â€Å"Hired† across the shared communities, dis-allowing employees to further apply for the job. 1. 4 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations: * HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language): It is used to create static web pages. * JSP (Java Server Pages): It is used to create dynamic web content. * J2EE (Java 2 Enterprise Edition): It is a programming platform, belonging to the Java platform, which is used for developing and running distributed java applications.WASCE (Web Sphere Application Server Community Edition): It is an application server that runs and supports the J2E E and the web service applications. * WSAD (Web Sphere Studio Application Developer): It is a designer toolkit which is designed to develop more complex projects by providing a complete dynamic web service. * DB2 (IBM Database 2): It is a database management system that provides a flexible and efficient database platform to raise a strong â€Å"on demand† business applications. * HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): It is a transaction oriented client/ server protocol between a web browser and a web server. . 5 Objective: This project is aimed at developing a web site for Online Job Portal. It is of great importance to the unemployed people. This site allocates the right job information for suitable persons. All the jobseekers as well as job providers’ information are stored in the database. 1. 6 References * BOOKS * R. S. Pressman, Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s Approach * P. Jalote, An Integrated Approach to Software Engineering 1. 7 Technologies to be used * J2EE: (Servlet, JSP, JAXP, Java Beans) Application architecture. * JAVA: Application architecture. WASCE: (Web Sphere Application Server Community Edition) Web Server * DB2: IBM Database. * Ajax: Asynchronous Java Script and XML. * XML: Extension Markup Language. * Web 2. 0: RSS Feed 2. 0. * Localization: 3 Languages – Hindi, Kannada, and English 1. 8 Overview The SRS will include two sections, namely: * Overall Description: This section will describe major components of the system, interconnections, and external interfaces. * Specific Requirements: This section will describe the functions of actors, their roles in the system and the constraints faced by the system. 2. 0 Overall descriptionThe Online Job Portal System is a package to be used by agencies to improve the efficiency of business. The Online Job Portal System to be developed benefits greatly the members. The system provides jobs catalogue and information to members and helps them decide on the jobs to apply . The Admin can keep the jobs catalogue updated all the time so that the members (Job seekers and the agencies) get the updated information all the time. The main users are users: Admin, Members who are the Job seekers and the agencies. 2. 1 Product Function I. Job Employer Job Employer section, which is further sub-divided into – Call for an interview date ? Call for an interview time Call for an asking Job Seeker want to go for an interview? Call for an asking Job Seeker about feedback of interview facing? Check the status true if selecting in the job. II. Job Administrator Job Administration section, which is further sub-divided into four subsections: Check the status true if call back from the company. Also check the status false if Job Seeker is rejected. Viewing members. Emailing Register New Administrator Add Country Add State Add City Edit/Delete Recruiter Edit/Delete Job Seeker View Reports III. Employee Section * Registration Resume upload in the speci fied format * Upload Video/ Audio Resumes – giving an extra edge to the deserving candidates * References/Video References * Option of Video Interviews * Advance search by keywords, location, job title, skill, industry, company, profile * Interest list for Jobs and the option of posting resumes to the entire list in one go * Option of tracking pervious applications * Directory Services like – â€Å"Best places to work† * Creative Resume writing service (paid service). * Option of having Personal Web Page (Profile Builder) – The professional details could be filled through simple designed form.Upload images, scanned salary slips, academic records, experience certificate, passport copy etc. , with a link and it could be accessed online from anywhere with feature of differential access. * Option of taking Industry endorsed tests for better employability and put them on the personal web page along with the resume * Confidentiality feature to define privacy le vel e. g. block current employer from accessing profile. * Access to Customer care * Spell Check facility for the resume * Interview Scheduler – an alert through the email or mobile phone. 2. 2 User CharacteristicsThe user should be familiar with the internet. The user should have knowledge of the area for which he has to file the complaint. 2. 3 Constraints: * GUI is only in English. * Login and password is used for identification of user and there is no facility for guest. * This system is working for multiple servers. * There is no maintainability of back up so availability will get affected * Limited to HTTP/HTTPS. 2. 4 Process Model SPIRAL MODEL SPIRAL MODEL was defined by Barry Boehm in his 1988 article, â€Å"A spiral Model of Software Development and Enhancement. This model was not the first model o discuss iterative development, but it was the first model to explain why the iteration models. As originally envisioned, the iterations were typically 6 months to 2 years long. Each phase starts with a design goal and ends with a client reviewing the progress thus far. Analysis and engineering efforts are applied at each phase of the project, with an eye toward the end goal of the project. It is an evolutionary software process model that couples the iterative nature of prototyping with the controlled and systematic aspects of the waterfall method. Fig 1. 0 Spiral Model Reasons for using this model in our project: Estimates (i. e. budget, schedule etc. ) become more realistic as work progresses, because important issues discovered earlier. * It is more able to cope with the changes that are software development generally entails. * Software engineers can get their hands in and start working on the core of a project earlier. * It’s a realistic approach to the development of large scale system and software. Architectural Design 12 Data Flow Diagram Level-0 Level – 1 2. 13 Data Dictionary Job Provider Reg-info = User name + Passwords + Em ail ID + Mobile No Login = User name + Passwords Submit = Job id + Job infoView and Post = Job vacancies + update jobs Job seeker Reg-info = User name + Passwords + Email ID + Mobile No Login info = User name + Passwords Receive = notification Update info = Upload resume Apply for a job = Job id + apply for job Receive = interview call letter Admin Login = User name + Passwords Check report = Complain id 2. 11 ER Diagram C-name URL Address Contacts Home Type of Sector Contact Us Sign Up 1 M Visit Job portal Company Login 1 1 1 Visit D -Resume Post M N M N Qualification M Search Job seeker Job Location Name Category Contact Address Criteria Exp DOB Position Job id Salary 2. 5. Sequence Diagram 2. 5 Use case Model Survey Approve the vacancy Administrator Login Put the vacancy on website Download the CV Send the reply to jobseeker Search for job Register Apply the job Upload resume Employer Check their qualification Job seeker 1. ADMINISTRATOR: * Name of use case:- ADMINSTRATOR * Descr iptions:-To manage the user accounts and maintain the database and user accounts. * Pre-conditions:- administrator user name and password. * Normal flow of events:- ?new login, password, details of the user location id, roles, permissions a granted. ?save details. ?manage the permissions of other users. Alternative flow of events:-if login is wrong then message appears. * Post conditions:-Management of user accounts and permissions. 2. REGISTRATION * Name of usecase:-CREATE the account * Descriptions:-the user can create a new account in the site. * Pre-conditions:- ?not a member of the site. ?invalid username and password. * Normal flow of events:- ?enter the details and submit. ?login the site. ?logout the site. * Alternative flow of events:- ?invalid username. ?invalid password. * Post conditions:- User can use the valuable resources in the site and view the various Job Opportunities. 3.JOB SEEKER * Name of usecase:-Job Seeker * Descriptions:-Job seeker can register & login to th e website and can upload his resume and can search for a desired job followed by applying for it * Pre-conditions:- ?Must have prepared his resume. ?Must have all the required job details. ?Must be eligible to apply for a job ?Must have registered for a job ?Must have prepared his resume * Normal flow of events:- ?enter the details and submit. ?login the site. ?upload a resume ?search for a job ?apply for a job ?check his application status ?can access to customer care * Alternative flow of events:- invalid username. ?invalid password. ?not eligible for the job ?not job is available for which the seeker is eligible ?no vacancies in any company ?have already applied for all the vacancies * Post conditions:- user can wait for the companies to give him a call for the interviews and can regularly check his mails for the alerts(if any)send by he administrator 4. JOB PROVIDER * Name of use case:-Job Provider * Descriptions:-Job Provider can register & login to the website and can add the vacancies update and delete them. * Pre-conditions:- ?Must have some vacancies for chances of vacancies in the future ?Must be eligible to register his company registration ?Must have registered to the site * Normal flow of events:- ?enter the details and submit. ?login the site. ?add the vacancies ?update the vacancies ?delete the vacancies ?check who all have register their vacancy and can contact to them personally * Alternative flow of events:- ?invalid username. ?invalid password. ?not eligible for registering ?no vacancies in the company ?no user registered for the vacancy * Post conditions:- Provider can take the note of the seekers who he wants to call for an interview and can contact with them through mails or calls. . 17 Timeline Chart(Gantt Chart) Work Tasks| 1st Week| 2nd Week| 3rd Week| 4th Week| 5th Week| 1. Communication Meet with team in-charge Identify needs and project constraints Establish product statement Milestone: Product statement defined2. Planning Technical task Risk analysis Source requirement Design and product analysis Project time schedule Milestone: Completion of planning3. Modeling Deciding model Analysis used model Milestone: Model selected4. Construction Code generation Testing Milestone: Completed construction5.Deployment Review the project Delivered to the customer Feedback based on evaluation Milestone: Project completed| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 3. 2 Computing Function Points Information Domain Value| Count| | Weighting FactorsSimple Average Complex| | | External Inputs| 8| x| 3| 4| 6| =| 24| External outputs| 5| x| 4| 5| 7| =| 20| External Inquiries| 3| x| 3| 4| 6| =| 09| Internal Logical Files| 6| x| 7| 10| 15| =| 42| External Interface Files| 0| x| 5| 7| 10| =| 0| Count Total| 95| To compute function points (FP), the following relationship is used: FP = count total x [0. 5 + 0. 01 x ? (Fi)] = 95x{0. 65+0. 01Ãâ€"46} = 105. 45 Where count total is the sume of all FP entries obtained from the Fi ( i = 1 to 14) are value adjustment factors (VAF) based on responses to the following. 1. Data communication 2. Distributed processing 3. Performance objectives 4. Operation configuration load 5. Transaction rate 6. On-line data entry 7. End user efficiency 8. On-line update 9. Complex processing logic 10. Re-usability 11. Installation ease 12. Operational ease 13. Multiple sites 14. Desier to facilitate change 4. 2. 2 Empirical model based estimation (COCOMO II model) No. f screens in the project: 14 No. of reports: 5 No. of 3GL components: 1 Developer’s experience/capability: Very Low % reuse: 70 Taking the values from the given tables: Thus Object Points= [14X1 + 5X2 ] =24 NOP= (object points) X [(100-%reuse)/100] =24 X 0. 30=7. 2 PROD=4 Thus Estimated effort=NOP/PROD=7. 2/4=1. 8 person-months RISK MANAGEMENT Risks| Category| Probability| Impact| Size estimate may be significantly low| PS| 60%| 2| Large number of users than planned| PS| 30%| 3| Less use than planned| PS| 70% | 2| End users resist system| BU| 40%| 3| Delivery deadline will be tightened| BU| 50%| 2|Customer will change requirements| PS| 80%| 2| Lack of training on tools | DE| 80%| 3| Staff inexperienced| ST| 60%| 2| Poor standard of work| ST| 40%| 1| Poor feedback| BU| 30%| 2| Incomplete requirements| PS| 30%| 2| Risk | Consequence | Action | Size estimate may be significantly low. | Inefficient resource allocation for the software resulting in delivery delays. | Close look at requirement collection process. | Less reuse than planned. | Development time will increase. | Develop efficient SRS. | Customer will change requirements. | Might lead to start of development from scratch. Choose an efficient model that can cope with sudden changes in requirements. | Staff Inexperienced. | Might lead to development of incomplete software. Completed project may receive poor reviews. | Choose the project team efficiently with proper mix of experiences | Poor standard of work. | Will result in a poor q uality project. Some elements may need to be redone. Completed project may receive poor reviews. | Carry out a thorough procurement process looking at issues of experience and quality as well as cost. Include appropriate contingency. | Delivery Deadline may be tightened. Delay in deployment. | Deadline should be carefully calculated keeping all areas in mind. | Poor public response to the software. | Wastage of development efforts with financial losses. | Conduct a survey to get information about market trends. | Requirements are incomplete. | Incomplete software. May get rejected by the customer. | Requirements should be carefully understood and documented. | Lack of training on tools. | Inefficient software product with chances of defects. | Developers should be well trained and comfortable with the development tools. | | | | End users resist system. Redevelopment of the product from scratch. | End users terms and conditions should be mentioned in the SRS. | Larger number of users than planned. | Database will need to be expanded. | Database should be big enough to cope with the worst case situations. | | | | 5. Design 7. 1 Structured Design Methodology Get username & password notifications apply confirmation validate joblist userid resume name&pwd System Database Main Print confirmation Login Apply Notifications Check passwords Check username Get passwords Get username validation login input Send resume Select company pply select view notifications Print Validate Username & password 6. Testing (White Box) 8. 1 Pseudo code 1. If(name==s. name && pwd==s. pwd) 2. then display notifications 3. else re-enter name and password 4. print â€Å"enter valid job category† 5. read j_c 6. if(j_c==s. jc[]) 7. then display job list 8. else print † no such category† 9. display â€Å"select valid job_id† 10. i=1,n=5; 11. do while(i

Intergenerational Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Intergenerational Interview - Essay Example At this state, the psychological crisis as characterized by Erickson is â€Å"integrity† versus â€Å"despair† (Shaffer & Kipp, 2009). Individuals in this stage are more associated with wisdom. For Erickson, integrity brought out two meanings. The first meaning involves consistency of values, actions, measures, methods, expectations, principles, and outcomes. It entails the ability of an individual to achieve his or her goals. The second meaning is an immanent quality of truthfulness and honesty as the major motivators of an individual’s actions. Despair is as a result of lack of hope (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2009). On reflecting on her life, Catherine feels like she has achieved enough in terms of taking care of her family. Integrity associated with this stage of life is evident in relation to Catherine when she looks at both her daughters, who are all independent, and feels successful. However, despair steps in when Catherine feels like she failed to do enough to keep her husband alive, even though there was nothing she could do, as she is very lonely. In addition, she feels like she did not make enough financial achievements and that she is going to run out of money, when in real sense she is not poor. One of the most significant developmental life events that Catherine went through was marriage. It is important to note that young adults have a need for establishing loving, intimate relationships with other individuals. The success of her marriage was highly important in her young and middle adulthood as she built a strong relationship with her husband and children. This is evident in her loneliness and her memories of her husband who died. Also, the distance of her daughters has increased her level of loneliness as they have established their families and live independently. However, the presence of her grandchildren has enabled her to establish new

Recruitment at Jenny's Coffee Shop Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Recruitment at Jenny's Coffee Shop - Assignment Example Human resource department must always ensure that the best kind of employees with creative mind and analytical understanding of issues are hired to the organization. (Gilmore & Williams, 2009) Recruitment Plan and Strategy To get the top talent in the market and to stay ahead of the curve, it is prudent that the recruitment strategy is aligned with the business plan. The plan adopted should always ensure that it takes into consideration qualities needed for the top management, departmental management and the store level. Top Management This strategy will focus its attention on competing coffee shops around. An expertise referral will also be taken into consideration. This plan will be adopted since the managerial team requires someone with very high experience and at least has an experience in working within the Coffee shops. These talents can only be gotten from competing firms. Departmental Management Level I will employ campus recruiting since it is a level whereby we have profess ionals reinforcing departmental decisions. Individuals can also be recruited from other firms not necessarily coffee shops. This brings individuals with very good mind set who knows what should be done to ensure cohesion and success within the departments. Students can also be recruited on internship basis. ... A necessary training is necessary for the team to ensure that they understand and appreciate the quality assurance policies of the coffee shop. Communication Message Jenny's Coffee Shop is one of the shop outlets with branches across United States. We are offering varied line of beverages in our various outlets across. We are currently expanding to other regions. Jenny's Coffee Shop offers services are tailored to meet our customer’s wants. We are glad to offer exciting and challenging positions to various individuals who meet the requirements as listed below. Apart from the academic and professional qualifications as listed, the applicant must possess the following attributes Personal Attributes High level of integrity Honesty Strong analytical skills Must be able to work under minimal supervision Strong communication skills Computer knowledge is a prerequisite (Guest, 2011). Senior Manager He/she will be in charge of daily overall operations within the shop and ensure coordi nation’s within the shop. He/ She must be a holder of a university degree from a recognized institution in any business related field with a bias in management. More than three years experience in a hospitality industry is must Proven past leadership skills Departmental managers They will be in charge of different departments. Must possess a university degree in either business related field, hotel management, accounting and computer science Must possess at least one year experience within the department he/ she is applying. Barista/ Shop Assistant They will be in charge of serving customers and also preparing coffee besides other beverages Basic education is a requirement. An experience in coffee shops is an added advantage. If you are interested in any of the above

Role of Budgets and Resource Allocation in Implementing and Executing Essay

Role of Budgets and Resource Allocation in Implementing and Executing Strategy - Essay Example Apparently, budgeting ensure that implementation and execution process has been assessed in order to determine amount of resources need for the process. According to Ireland, Hoskisson and Hitt (2009), the budgeting stage of strategic planning is undertaken based on chronology of activities required for achievement of objectives. In fact, this can lead to enhanced processes in the organization such as effective utilization of resources and establishment of effective management practices (Ireland, Hoskisson & Hitt, 2009). Therefore, there is need for understanding budgeting in a systematic way, which is important in realization of processes that are composed such as establishment of objectives, setting targets, monitoring performance and allocation of resources (Spee & Jarzabkowski, 2011). On the other hand there is need for budgeting with aims of addressing particular areas of strategy, which are categorized under implementation plan, organizational change management strategies, stra tegic financial management, and risk management plan. Environmental Sustainability Relate to Implementing and Executing Strategy Implementation and execution of a strategy in an organization is highly influenced by various environmental factors; in fact, strategic planning which entails budgeting considers these effects. For instance, an organization operates in a competitive business environment due to importance of effective strategic environmental planning. In this case, an environmental scan can be undertaken through a SWOT analysis, whereby the analysis focuses on strengths and weaknesses, which forms the internal environment of the organization and threat and opportunities that involve external environment (Spee & Jarzabkowski, 2011). In fact,... Role of Budgets and Resource Allocation in Implementing and Executing Strategy The paper will focus exploring significance of and the role of budgeting and resource allocation, and environmental sustainability to implementing and executing strategy. In this case, an organization formulates objectives concerning their budget, whereby they are focus on ways to reach break-even point within a stipulated timeframe, which is identified to be before completion of their action items. Barr and McClellan (2010) argue that for the purpose of achieving this aim, an organization should acquire sufficient capital, which will enable them avoid scenarios in which expenses surpass income leading to a loss during the process of implementing and executing a strategy (Hill & Jones, 2008). Financials of this institution should be established on the basis of a contingency approach to ensure that unforeseen events do not affect school operations. Nevertheless, in case the financial situation persistently delivers losses, Barr and McClellan (2010) argues that a reconsideration of pri cing policies. This essay focuses on exploring the roles of budgets and allocation of resources to implementation and execution of a strategy. It also explores the interrelationship of environmental sustainability to execution and implementation of a strategy. Therefore, it is evident that allocation of resources has a signification impact on the process of implementing and executing a strategy since managers ensures that there are sufficient financial and human resources to support this process.

Charcter Analysis of the short Story The Enormous Radio Essay

Charcter Analysis of the short Story The Enormous Radio - Essay Example Moreover, the new radio turned out to be too sensitive to electronic devices at first, and when it was repaired, it started to transmit the conversations of other people in the apartment. Irene picked up the habit of listening to these conversations, and got very upset by the evening. Jim repairs it again and gets the radio back to working condition. Irene appears to be a contented housewife, enjoying her day to day chores and the free time in which she listens to the radio. But the peaceful atmosphere gives way to subtle nuances of conflict, as she keeps listening to the conversations of other people. She appears shocked by the evening when Jim arrives. She asks him to go up to 16-C where Mr. Osborn is beating his wife. When Jim tries to chide her, she tells him how terrible the lives of the people in their apartment had. Almost all of them were quarrelling over money matters and leading hypocritical lives. She tries to get the reassurance from Jim that their life had not been like that. She asks him: â€Å"†¦ we have always been good and decent and loving to one another, haven’t we†¦.Our lives aren’t sordid, are they, darling? Are they?† This reveals the inner conflicts Irene had regarding her family life. She is not totally unaware of the scars that remain after hypocritical phases of life, but she tries to overcome that with the good aspects of her life. It is the revelation that all the families around her are going through some sort of self-deception and misery which upsets her. She tries to contrast the relative peace and order in her family and hope against hope that her family life would not end up being a show off. On the day the radio is repaired at last, a bizarre argument is picked up by Jim, which Irene tries to neglect. But in his fury, he accuses Irene of lying to him about paying the clothing bills. He makes his resentment regarding the extra expenses

Environmental Conservation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Environmental Conservation - Essay Example An environment is made up of resources. Resources refer to existing means of supplying what is needed or a stock that can be drawn on. Renewable resources are those that can be regenerated at a constant level. This is because they recycle rapidly, is alive or has the capacity to reproduce and grow. Examples are water which can be recycled, organisms because they can reproduce and many others. These resources will always keep on regenerating themselves as long as the rater of use is less than their rate of regeneration and the environments are kept suitable. Non renewable resources are not regenerated or reformed in nature at rates equivalent to the rate of use e.g. oil. There is a special category of non-renewable resources which are not affected by the way we use them e.g. metals which can be recycled. Environmental conservation is defined as the rational use of the environment to provide highest sustainable quality of living for humanity. With rapid development, there is stress on most resources including human resources in the developed countries which are registering negative population growth rate. According to World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987), sustainable development should be development that meets that need of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. The biggest problem facing the world currently is environmental pollution. This has brought about global warming. Gorge Philander (1998), says that, global warming is the rise in world temperatures. This is caused by accumulation of carbon dioxide gas and other air polluting elements that collect in the atmosphere and forms a thickening blanket trapping the sun's heat and causing the planet to warm up. It is caused by several factors with coal burning alone producing about 2.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide every year. Several other human activities contribute to global warming. Growth o f rice in rice pads has been attributed as one of the greatest cause of carbon dioxide and methane gas which a cause global warming. Animal feacal materials are also thought to contribute a substantial amount of methane gas that contribute to global warming. This emission of carbon dioxide gas, coupled with depletion of forest cover of the world is the main cause of the problem. Human activities like clearing of forest and burning of charcoal are also contributing to global warming. According to John Houghton (1997), global warming is being evidenced in many ways. Disappearance or reduction of ice caps on major mountains of the world especially those along the equatorial region. There has also been evidence of rise in sea level with fears expressed that some coastal towns and islands may be submerged in the near future if immediate measures are not taken to avert the situation. Continuing global warming has brought effects like increase in diseases incidences and pests challenging agriculture, changes in populations and plant and animal ranges shifts, coral leef bleaching and alpine meadows disrupting ecosystems, heavy downpours and flooding drought and fires. These are considered as early signs of global warming. Its effects has been felt on every corner of the world with famous elnino and lanina periods of heavy down pour and prolonged droughts respectively, the Katrina hurricane in America and other

Employment Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Employment Law - Essay Example The company should complete the ET3 form so that they can be able to defend the claimant’s claim of unfair dismissal then present it to the employment tribunal within 28days from the time it received the claimants form. The Employment tribunal is mandated to listen to cases that arise in employment, concerning the employer or the employees over their employment rights. If the company does not present its ET3 form to the employment tribunal default judgment is likely to be entered against them, which will then preclude the company from taking part in the proceedings. If the respondent presents their ET3 form to the tribunal, the tribunal has the power to order for disclosure of all the relevant materials pertaining to the case. The employment rights are enumerated under the employment rights act. The act provides under section 36 that an agreement will be deemed to be terminated upon the last day of the period that is agreed upon. The company gave Jack a notice of termination o f his employment and therefore by virtue of the notice his employment was terminated upon the lapse of the period given for termination. ... When it comes to poor performance and misconduct the employment rights act stipulates under sections 38(2) and (3) that an employer shall only terminate the employee’s contract of employment if there is no other cause of action that can be taken. Further, the act states that, when there is a charge made against the employee for misconduct or poor performance the employee should be given the chance to respond to such a charge. It is after the employee has responded to such a charge that the employer can then effect his termination. Gross misconduct is whereby the employee conducts himself so badly that his behaviour ruins the relationship between him and his employer that leads to immediate dismissal. In the above case, the company did not give the employee an opportunity to reply to a charge of misconduct or poor performance. The company raised the allegations of his misconduct and poor performance after his contract had already been terminated. We see that it is only after th e termination of Jack’s contract that the employer became aware of the fact that he had a drinking problem and discovered the empty bottles of alcohol in his desk. Apart from Jack coming to work in an unacceptable condition, all the reasons were brought up after the employee had left the premises of the company that proves that he was not given a chance to respond to any charge that was brought against him and he was neither given a reason for his termination. The company acted wisely in giving the employee a notice of termination instead of instant termination. The tribunal considers instant termination seriously; it looks to see if the employer’s reasons for termination were reasonable and if it was fair considering the circumstances of the case. This will mean

Evaluation of Barclays Bank in India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Evaluation of Barclays Bank in India - Essay Example After the deregulation and reformation initiatives taken by the Ministry of Finance and the Reserve Bank of India for improving the structure of Indian banking Industry, the banks in India are performing better in comparison of other developing nations. Enhancing economic condition of Indian people is another key factor for the success of Indian Banking Industry and other macro-economic factors are also favourable for growth of Indian banking sector. However, due to dominance of Indian domestic banks, Barclays have wisely selected its target market i.e. the HNI and HRI clients. Besides, it is also trying to offer world class services to position itself as a leading global bank. The process of globalisation has influenced the entire process of human activities and globalisation of trade and business in one of the most significant instance for global economies. It has also given birth to the global banking sectors as many banks from developed countries are trying to enter in the emerging nations like China and India. The growing economic stability and increasing disposable income of India, many multinational companies including banks have entered in this market and these MNC banks are also experiencing a rapid growth in Indian market (Arasu, 2008, p.274). This paper will attempt to present an evaluation of Barclays Bank, a leading global bank for its Indian market business. The primary objective this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of Barclays in India using multiple analytical strategic tools. Barclays bank is basically a UK-based multinational bank established in more than 330 years ago, and for market expansion, it has also entered into the most of emerging and developed countries like Middle East, U.S.A., Asian countries, European countries (Barclays-a, 2011). Barclays bank entered into the Indian financial market during 1970s and since then, it has experienced tremendous growth and success. In Indian market it offers retail as well as commercial banking services catering more than 400,000 customers and clients. It has opened its multiple banking units in most of Indian cities.  

A Significant Problem of the Airline Industry and the Profitability of Research Paper

A Significant Problem of the Airline Industry and the Profitability of the Company - Research Paper Example The Rivalry is a major factor that influences the operation of a business in the industry. At present, there are 10 best budget airlines operating in Asia that has been rated by Smart Asia Travel, an online travel magazine (rediff.com, 2008) as Asia’s top 10 budget airlines. On the basis of cheap tickets, reliable schedules, decent service, route network and access, Air Asia has been rated number one by this travel magazine. Other budget airlines that follow are Jetstar Asia, Nok Air, Tiger Airways, Cebu Pacific, Virgin Blue, Air Deccan, Spice Jet, Viva Macau and Hongkong Express. Rivalry among the budget airlines is considered intense because of its big number that competes for the same number of customers and market shares. Thus, there is a continuing race for leadership in budget airlines. Others reasons that intensify rivalry among budget airlines are the high fixed costs that require airlines to implement strategies to attract passengers and fill the airlines into the ful l capacity to attain the lowest cost per unit. High fixed cost is required in operating an airline, thus Air Asia needs to sell to a large number of passengers in order to attain profitability. This situation leads to the increased rivalry. Because of these high fixed costs, a firm finds it hard to make an exit in the industry. Take, for example, the situation of Air Asia that incurred huge losses before 2001 when it was owned by the government. The takeover of Tony Fernandez, a private investor revived the business and steered it to profitability.

Line Between Tough Love and Child Abuse Essay Example for Free

Line Between Tough Love and Child Abuse Essay Poets and authors have tried to define love for centuries, whereas scientists have only recently started. Many of us know intuitively that love is a major purpose for living; (Blueprint, 2013) that connection is inherent in all that we do, and without love, we cannot survive as a species. But what is love, and how do we know when were in it? First , lets start off with what love isnt. If someone asks you to do or say something that isnt in your nature, that isnt true love. Smith, 2002) Although love does involve compromises between partners, someone who is in love with you will never ask you to change who you are in order to be loved. True Love is caring. The ancient Greeks had many different names for different forms of love: passion, virtuous, affection for the family, desire, and general affection. But no matter how love is defined, they all hold a common trait: caring. (Blueprint, 2013) True Love is attractive. Attraction and chemistry form the bond that allows people to mate. Without this romantic desire for another individual, a relationship is nothing more than lust or infatuation. True Love is attached. Like the mother-child bond, attachment comes after the initial attraction. Attachment is the long term love that appears anywhere from one to three years into a romantic relationship (sometimes sooner and very rarely after), and youll know youve found it when you can honestly say, (Smith, 2002) Ive seen the worst and the best you have to offer, and I still love you, while your partner feels the same way. True Love is committed. When it comes to true love, commitment is more than just monogamy. It’s the knowledge that your partner cares for you and has your back, no matter what the circumstances. People who are strongly committed to one another will, when faced with seemingly negative information about their partner, see only the positive. For example, a friend comments that your partner doesnt say a lot. Ah yes, hes the strong, silent type, you reply. People with less commitment to their partner would instead say something like, Yeah, I can never have conversation with him. It’s annoying. True Love is Intimate. Intimacy is a crucial component of all relationships, regardless of their nature. In order to know another, you need to share parts of yourself. This self-revealing behavior, when reciprocated, (Teicher, 2000) forms an emotional bond. Over time this bond strengthens and even evolves, so that two people merge closer and closer together. Intimacy by itself if is a great friendship, but compiled with the other things in this list, it forms an equation for true love. Within the minimum standards set by CAPTA, each State is responsible for providing its own definitions of child abuse and neglect. Most States recognize four major types of maltreatment: physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse. Although any of the forms of child maltreatment may be found separately, (Blueprint, 2013) they often occur in combination. In many States, abandonment and parental substance abuse are also defined as forms of child abuse or neglect. The examples provided below are for general informational purposes only. Not all States definitions will include all of the examples listed below, and individual States definitions may cover additional situations not mentioned here. Physical abuse is no accidental physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures or death) as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise harming a child, that is inflicted by a parent, caregiver, or other person who has responsibility for the child. Perry, 2002) Such injury is considered abuse regardless of whether the caregiver intended to hurt the child. Physical discipline, such as spanking or paddling, is not considered abuse as long as it is reasonable and causes no bodily injury to the child. Neglect is the failure of a parent, guardian, or other caregiver to provide for a childs basic needs. (Perry, 2002) Neglect may be physical (failure to provide necessary food or shelter, or lack of appropriate supervision), medical (e. g. failure to provide necessary medical or mental health treatment), educational (e. g. , failure to educate a child or attend to special education needs), or emotional (e. g. , inattention to a childs emotional needs, failure to provide psychological care, or permitting the child to use alcohol or other drugs). These situations do not always mean a child is neglected. Sometimes cultural values, the standards of care in the community, and poverty may be contributing factors, indicating the family is in need of information or assistance. Teicher, 2000) When a family fails to use information and resources, and the childs health or safety is at risk, then child welfare intervention may be required. In addition, many States provide an exception to the defi nition of neglect for parents who choose not to seek medical care for their children due to religious beliefs that may prohibit medical intervention. Sexual abuse includes activities by a parent or caregiver such as fondling a childs genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, and exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials. Sexual abuse is defined by CAPTA as the employment, use, persuasion, inducement, enticement, or coercion of any child to engage in, or assist any other person to engage in, any sexually explicit conduct or simulation of such conduct for the purpose of producing a visual depiction of such conduct; or the rape, and in cases of caretaker or inter-familial relationships, statutory rape, molestation, prostitution, or other form of sexual exploitation of children, or incest with children. Emotional abuse (or psychological abuse) is a pattern of behavior that impairs a childs emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance. Emotional abuse is often difficult to prove and, therefore, (Teicher, 2000) child protective services may not be able to intervene without evidence of harm or mental injury to the child. Emotional abuse is almost always present when other forms are identified. Abandonment is now defined in many States as a form of neglect. (Perry, 2002) In general, a child is considered to be abandoned when the parents identity or whereabouts are unknown, the child has been left alone in circumstances where the child suffers serious harm, or the parent has failed to maintain contact with the child or provide reasonable support for a specified period of time. Tough love simply means that if your child decides to do anything that can harm him/her or others that you have to love your child enough to take a stand against that behavior. If this means that you have to report your child to the authorities, whether the law or teachers, then you need to do it. It also means that if you find that you need help with your child for whatever reason that you should ask for it. There is nothing shameful about having a child who is out of control. It happens to the best of parents. What would be shameful is not to do anything. The fastest and best way to implement tough love techniques with your child is to simply start making them fully responsible for their own actions. (Blueprint, 2013) Don’t pay or legal representation, don’t bail them out with teachers, and don’t interfere in the natural consequences that may happen. Sometimes, you may even need to go further in the case of a child putting others in danger via drinking or drugging and driving. Take the car, take the money, take the phone, remove all privileges, and if that doesn’t work, you may have to call the police on your child who is pract icing illegal behaviors. Don’t give multiple warnings and threats. (Teicher, 2000) Teenagers just stop believing you, if you don’t back up your words with actions. Giving natural consequences a push in the right direction can go far in helping your child, while you’re still there for emotional support as long as they’re doing the right thing, can help a child straighten their life out before they are on their own. Child abuse is more than bruises and broken bones. While physical abuse might be the most visible, other types of abuse, such as emotional abuse and neglect, also leave deep, lasting scars. The earlier abused children get help, the greater chance they have to heal and break the cycle—rather than perpetuate it. By learning about common signs of abuse and what you can do to intervene, you can make a huge difference in a child’s life. While physical abuse is shocking due to the scars it leaves, not all child abuse is as obvious. Ignoring children’s needs, putting them in unsupervised, dangerous situations, or making a child feel worthless or stupid are also child abuse. Regardless of the type of child abuse, the result is serious emotional harm. An estimated 905,000 children were victims of child abuse or neglect in 2006 (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). While physical injuries may or may not be immediately visible, abuse and neglect can have consequences for children, families, and society that last lifetimes, if not generations. The impact of child abuse and neglect is often discussed in terms of physical, psychological, behavioral, and societal consequences. In reality, however, it is impossible to separate them completely. Physical consequences, such as damage to a childs growing brain, can have psychological implications such as cognitive delays or emotional difficulties. Psychological problems often manifest as high-risk behaviors. Depression and anxiety, for example, may make a person more likely to smoke, abuse alcohol or illicit drugs, or overeat. High-risk behaviors, in turn, can lead to long-term physical health problems such as sexually transmitted diseases, cancer, and obesity. This factsheet provides an overview of some of the most common physical, psychological, behavioral, and societal consequences of child abuse and neglect, while acknowledging that much crossover among categories exists. The immediate emotional effects of abuse and neglect—isolation, fear, and an inability to trust—can translate into lifelong consequences including low self-esteem, depression, and relationship difficulties. (Teicher, 2000) Researchers have identified links between child abuse and neglect and the following: In one long-term study, as many as 80 percent of young adults who had been abused met the diagnostic criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder at age 21. These young adults exhibited many problems, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and suicide attempts (Silverman, Reinherz, amp; Giaconia, 1996). Other psychological and emotional conditions associated with abuse and neglect include panic disorder, dissociative disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and reactive attachment disorder (Teicher, 2000). The National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being recently found children placed in out-of-home care due to abuse or neglect tended to score lower than the general population on measures of cognitive capacity, language development, and academic achievement (2003). Children who are abused and neglected by caretakers often do not form secure attachments to them. These early attachment difficulties can lead to later difficulties in relationships with other adults as well as with peers (Morrison, Frank, Holland, amp; Kates, 1999). Not all victims of child abuse and neglect will experience behavioral consequences; however, child abuse and neglect appear to make the following more likely: Studies have found abused and neglected children to be at least 25 percent more likely to experience problems such as delinquency, teen pregnancy, low academic achievement, drug use, and mental health problems (Kelley et al. , 1997). A National Institute of Justice study indicated being abused or neglected as a child increased the likelihood of arrest as a juvenile by 59 percent. Abuse and neglect increased the likelihood of adult criminal behavior by 28 percent and violent crime by 30 percent (Widom amp; Maxfield, 2001). Research consistently reflects an increased likelihood that abused and neglected children will smoke cigarettes, abuse alcohol, or take illicit drugs. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, as many as two-thirds of people in drug treatment programs reported being abused as children (2000).

Exploratory research

Exploratory research Exploratory Exploratory research is usually carried out when problem is not well identified or it has not been visibly defined as yet, or its real scale is as yet unclear. It allows the research person to collect the information as much as possible relating to a specific problem. Exploratory research helps conclude the best research design, data collection methodtechnique and selectionchoice of subjects, and sometimes it even concludesconcluderesults that the problem does not existbe present. Exploratory research is quite informalcasual, when it relying on secondary researches such as reviewing available literature, data, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumerscustomers, employees, management or competitorscompetitoropponents, and more formal approaches through in-depthin depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies (Yin, 1994). Explanatory This is a research type in which the primary goalobjective is to understand the naturetemperament or mechanisms of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable. This approach is used when its is necessary to show that one variable causescauses or determines concludes the value of other variable. This research is good to use when there is no clearunambiguous apprehension about what model that should be used and what qualities and relations that is importantsignificant (Zikmund, 1994). Descriptive Descriptive research is used to obtainget information concerning the currentpresent status of the phenomena to describeexplain what exists with respect to variables or conditions in a situationstate. Descriptive research is used when the objectivegoal is to provide a systematic description defination that is as factual and accurateexact as possible or when the problem is well structuredordered and there is no intentionobjective to investigatestudy cause/effect relation. It provideprovidess you the number of occurrencestimes something occurshappens, or frequency, lends leads itself to statistical calculationscalculationcomputation such as determining calculating the average number of occurrences or central tendencies (Yin, 1994). One of its major limitationsrestrictions is that it can not help determineconclude what causes a specific occurrence, behavior, or motivation or occurrence. We can say thatIn other words, it cannot establishcreate a causal research relationship betweenamong variables. My research purpose and research question reveal that this study is mainlyfor the most part exploratory. It is exploratory because the data has been collected through questionnaires and unstructured interviews and questionnaires to explore the issues that influence Pakistani community intentions to adopt Internet banking services. Research Approach There are two basic types of research approaches, qualitative and quantitative. In the quantitative approach, resultsoutcomes are based on numbers and statistics and numbers that are presented in figures, whereas in the qualitative approach where focus lies on describing an eventoccurrence with the use of words. Although this research on adoption of Internet banking services adoption in Pakistan is not very extensive as compared to discussiondebate of the benefits, most of the concepts in this study have been occasionallyrarely examined before, but mostlygenerally in the western context. Only a littleslight research covers usually Singapore, Hong Kong or China, which are very developed economies and not representativeenvoys of all Asian countries. Thusso to gain deeper understanding of the issues in the Pakistani context, this research is conducted as a qualitative study to explore the perception of internet banking in Pakistani community. The Usinge of this approach provides richer and forensic detailsparticulars for exploring viewpoints in the early stage of research. Hence the aimintend is not to make any simplification, but instead establishset up a closer contact with the objectives of priorpreceding research, which intendhave it in mind to provide us a deeper understanding of the participants attitudes and perceptions. Finally my intentionobjective with this research is to describe, and explore, and find complete and detailed information about the issues of Internet banking adoption in Pakistan, so quantitative qualitative approach is the most suitable method for my research. Research Strategy Research strategy is a generalbroad plan which shows that in which wayhow this research will go on, and how researcher person will answers the questions that has been set by the person conducting the researcher. It will containhave clear objectives, derived from research question that specify the source from which researcher person intendbe going to to collect data and consider the constraintsconstraintlimitations that research peopleers will inevitably have such as access to data like , time, location and money, ethical issues (saunders, 2000). Qualitative research can be conductedconductcarried out using severalquite a few strategies including: case study, experiments, surveys, histories, and analysis of archival information (Yin, 1994). Following are the short descriptionexplanation of above five research strategies: Case Study Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailedthorough information about a particularspecific participant or small group of participants. A case study is a written descriptionexplanation of a problem or situation and typicallynormally examines the interplay of all variables in order tofor providinge ass complete an understanding of an event or situation as possible. Case study is preferredideal when the researcher has littleslight control over the events, and when there is a contemporaryup to date focus within a real life context. The purposerationale of a case study is to place participants in the role of decision- makers, asking them to distinguishdifferentiate relevant from unimportant facts, to identify central alternatives among severalnumerous issues competing for attention, and to formulateprepare strategies and policy recommendations (Yin, 1994). Experiments The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determinedecide if changes in one variable causeground changes in another variable. This method reliesdepends on controlled methods, random assignment, and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. This strategy is used when the researcher person need to comparecontrast two variables and examine their cause and effect relationships (Malhorta, 1996). Survey Its a research technique in which information is collectinged by interviews with a largehuge number of respondents using a pre-designed questionnaire (Zikmund, 1994). This research technique has three important characteristics: Purpose: The purpose of survey research is to generate quantitative descriptions of some characteristics of the population in study. Survey analysis may be mainly related either with associations between variables or with projecting results descriptively to a pre-defined population (Yin, 1994). Basically Survey research is a quantitative approach, calling for standardized information about and/or from the subjects being studied. The subjects under study might be individuals, groups, organizations or communities; they also might be projects, applications, or systems. Procedure: The most important way of collecting information is by raising people structured and predefined questions. Answers of questions given by people, which might refer to themselves or some other unit of analysis, comprises the data to be analyzed (Yin, 1994). Analyses: Information is usually collected about only a portion of the population under study, but information is collected in such a way as to be able to take a broad view the whole population. Usually, the sample is huge enough to allow broad statistical analyses. History This method is deals with the past, and is in used when none of the relevantconcerning persons are alive to interview or report (Yin, 1994). This method is specificallyspecially used to describe the content, structure and function of the data which collected for the research. Analysis of Archival Information The purpose of this techniquemethod is to describeexplain the incidence or prevalencepervasiveness of a phenomenon (Zikmund, 1994). The use of the archival information is difficult when this topic is coming research area. The following table displaysdisplaydemonstrates the conditions that need to be addressed when determiningshaping on a strategy. Most importantsignificantconsiderable condition for selecting research strategy is to identifycategorize the type of research question being asked. Based on the research question what that I set for this research, I have chosen to follow case study and survey research strategy, because this research is not dependentreliant on a single critical, extreme, uniqueexclusive or revelatory case. Sample Selection Sampling is a survey- based research where researcher persons needs to analyze the sample about a population toin order to answer the research questions or meetmeetsfulfill meet the research objectives (Saunders, 2000). Once the problem has been carefullyvigilantly defined, the researcher person needs to establishset up the sample that will outlinesketch out the investigation to be carried out. It is necessary for researcher person to clearly define the target population from whom the specific sample will be taken. Sampling is importantsignificant if budget cost and time constraints preventstops research from surveying the entire population. Sample gives higher level of accuracy and fast accurate result. Occasionally, the whole population will be adequatelysufficiently small, and the research person can take account of the entire population in the study. This kind of research is named a census study since data is collected on each member of the population . Generally, the population is quite large for the research person to attempt to survey the entire of its members. A small, but vigilantly chosen sample can be used to symbolize the population. The sample represents all of the characteristics of the population from which it is taken out. Sampling technique can be classified into two types (Saunders, 2000): Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling Probability sampling While using In probability sampling, the sample is selectedion is done in such a way that each every unit of the population has a known probability of getting selected.within the population has a known chance of being selected. It is this conceptperception of known chance that allows permits for the statistical projection of characteristics features based on the sample tof the population (Saunders, 2000). The benefit of probability sampling is that sampling error can be intended. Sampling error is the amount to which a sample might be different from the population Probability method includes. Random sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling Non-Probability Sampling While using In non- probability sampling, the selection of the sample is selected done in such a way that the chancepossibility of being selected offor each unit withinin the population is unknown. In deedfact, the selectionprocess of choosing of the subjects is random or subjective, since the researcher person relies on his/her experience, gut feeling and judgment. As a resultConsequently, there are no statistical techniquestechniqueprocedures that allowpermit for the measurement of sampling error, and the amount to which the sample variesdiffers from the population remains unknown and therefore it is not appropriatesuitable to project the sample characteristicsdistinctiveness to the population (Saunders, 2000). Non-probability includes: Convenience sampling Judgment sampling Quota sampling Snowball sampling Convenience sampling Convenience sampling is used in investigative research where the research person is concerned in getting a low-priced approximation of the reality. As the name shows, the sample is chosen because they are convenient. This non-probability technique is time and again used during preliminary research times to get a gross approximation of the results, without increasing the cost or time required to choose a random sample (Saunders, 2000). Judgment sampling Judgment sampling is a common non-probability technique. The research people choose the sample depending on judgmental approach. This is generally an addition of convenience sampling. For example, a research person may make a decision to draw the complete sample from one representative city, albeit the population comprises all cities. When using this method, the research person must be in no doubt that the selected sample is accurately representative of the whole population (Saunders, 2000). Quota sampling Quota sampling is the non-probability the same of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the research people first recognizes the stratums and their magnitude as they are symbolized in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to choose the necessary quantity of subjects from every stratum. This diverges from stratified sampling, where all of the stratums are filled by random sampling (Saunders, 2000). Snowball sampling Snowball sampling is a special non-probability technique used when the preferred sample attribute is exceptional. It may be extremely difficult or unaffordable to find respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling depends on referrals from starting subjects to produce additional subjects. Whereas this technique can noticeably reduce the research costs, it comes at the cost of bringing in bias because this method by itself decreases the likelihood that the sample will symbolize a good cross-section from the population (Saunders, 2000). Sampling in qualitative research involves two actions; (Miles and Huberman 1994): Setting of boundaries: To define aspects of cases that we can study and connecting it directly to the research question. Creation of frame: to help us uncover, confirm, or qualify the basic process or constructs that strengthen our study Non-probability (convenience) sampling has been chosen for this research because we have targeted the Pakistani community which is dealing with the banks. Sampling procedure Sampling The process of sampling involves using large number of items or parts of subsets of population to make conclusion regarding the whole population. The purpose of sampling is to estimate some unknown characteristics of population. Population Population is any complete set of group of object. Like people, stores, students, industries etc. Sampling frame A sampling frame is the listing of the elements from which the actual sample will draw. Keeping the research in view we will draw the sampling frame as under. Population is the people of Pakistan having bank accounts, we narrow down our study only to Punjab province Sampling frame will be the major cities of Punjab like Lahore, Multan, Faisalabad, and Sahiwal. Keeping in view the time and cost available for the research we have narrowed down the research only to four major cities of Punjab. Data Collection Methods As data collection method is highly influenced by the methodology, which is chosen (Saunders and Thornhill, 2000), questionnaire are used to collect the empirical data for this research in order to identify the issues that affect the adoption of Internet banking services in Pakistan. As this researchs main concern is examining the issues that have influence on the adoption process of Internet banking in Pakistan, the questionnaire are designed based on the requirements for adopting such a service Questionnaire The questionnaire consists of three pages and twenty questions (Appendix A). It has different type of questions including open end question, close ended questions and multiple questions. It was designed to capture all the segments of community which uses the banking services. Validity and Reliability In order to reduce the possibility of getting incorrect answers, attention needs to be paid to validity and reliability (Saunders et al., 2003). Validity Validity is concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be about (Saunders et al., 2003). Validity defined as the degree to which data compilation method or methods correctly measure what they were anticipated to measure (Saunders et al., 2003). Yin (1994) stateys in these words, no singlesolo source has a completeabsolute advantage over all of the all others (P.85). The different sourcessources of different types are highly complementary, and as many sources as possible should be used for a good case study should use as many sources as possible. The usage of various sources of evidence can increases the validity of scientific studyThe validity of a scientific study increases by using various sources of evidence (Yin, 1994). The following steps were taken to ensure the validity of this research: The needed data was collected in the format of a structured questionnaire that had been designed based on the literature related to adoption of innovation. The questionnaires were pre-tested. A pilot test was conducted with the questionnaire. Reliability According to Saunders et al. (2003), reliability refers to the extent to which data collection method or methods will produce consistent results, analogous observations would be made or results reached by other research persons or there is clearness in how sense was made from the unprocessed data. Reliability can be assed by the following three questions: Will the measure yield the same results on other occasions? Will other observers reach similar observation? Is there precision in the method how sense was made from the unprocessed data? The role of reliability is to minimize the errors and biases in a study (Yin (1994). This means that reliability is to demonstrate that the operations of the study, such as the data collection procedures, can be repeated with the same result. Saunders et al. (2003) asserts that there may be four threats to reliability. The first of these is subject of participant error, which means that a questionnaire may generate a different result at different times of the week. The second threat to reliability is subject or participant bias, which is when interviewees may have been saying what they thought their bosses, wanted them to say. Third, there may have been observer error that different interviewer may approach the questions in different ways. Finally, there may have been observer bias, which means that there may have been different approaches to interpreting the replies. The work with this thesis started with a considerable literature study. The literature I came across (mainly articles) was from several authors and often had Internet banking and adoption of e-banking topics, which meant that I covered the area of Internet banking surroundings. This would suggest that bias, form reading only one author and reading only about one topic, be held at a minimum level. Widersheim-Paul and Eriksson (1997) describe some other erroneous belief that is to be avoided in order to attain high reliability. One of these is measuring error, which in turn consists of respondent errors, gauging errors and errors that are effect of interplay between the interviewer and the respondent. As I used a questionnaire, this latter error was avoided in advance. The respondent errors are such errors that are due to the fact that respondents sometimes are unable or unwilling to provide truthful answers. In order to minimize effects of this kind of errors, I found it necessary to be careful about the language and the wording. Furthermore, the use of wording in the questionnaire was of major concern to avoid ambiguous or emotional charged formulations. The chosen wording and language was simple, direct and as far as possible without technical terms. The gauging errors arise when a questionnaire entails erroneously formulated question, wrong order of question etceteras (Widersheim-Paul and Eriksson, 1997). The order of the questions was also subject to analysis and it was found to be suitable to have a disposition where the initial questioning concerned facts that the respondents easily could give an answer to. Numbers of different steps were taken to ensure the reliability of the study: Case studies were used during the data collection. The same type of questions were asked from companys respondent in order to increase the reliability Since the generalization is not the purpose of the study, multiple cases have been used to increase the degree to which the findings can be the same. It might be possible to get the same result on the findings to a larger number of similar cases. The theories that have been selected for the study were clearly described and research questions have been formulated based on the previous theory. Data has been collected based on the research model that was drawn from the discussed theories. The objective is to make sure that if another investigator will follow the same procedures and used the same case study objects, the same conclusions would be made. Study A pilot test of the questionnaire was carried out. All the test respondents filled in the questionnaire and their opinions how they felt about filling in the questionnaire. The test was followed by many revisions, before it was sent to respondents. After refining some questions and items within the questions, the second pilot study was run and asked respondents to check for the wording, coverage, relevancy of the items listed within the questions. Finally, at this stage little modifications were needed and finally, the well-improved questionnaire was developed. By using these tools (reliability, validity and pilot study) I can further analyze the data that the respondents provided me in a more accurate way. Data Analysis Data analysis can be defined as consistingconsistent of three concurrent flowsflowstreams of activity: data reduction, data display and conclusion drawing/verification (p.10) by Miles Huberman (1994). Data reduction should not be considered thought to be separate from analysis, but a part portion of it. Data reduction stage of the analysis helps the researcher to make the data sorted, sharpen, sorted, focused, organized and discarded, and organized in order to be able to draw and verify conclusion (ibid.). The data reduction stage of the analysis helps the researcher to make the data sharp, sorted, focused, discarded, and organized in order to be able to draw and verify conclusions. The data display is a way to organize and compress the reduced data so that it will make it easier to draw conclusions. This phase is useful when the researcher studies more than one case, a so-called multiple case. In the conclusion drawing and verification the researcher notes regularities, patterns, explanations, possible configurations, casual flows and propositions. Data analysis involves examining, categorizing, tabulating or otherwise recombining the collected data (Yin, 1994). Every investigation should have a general analytical strategy in order to determine what to analyze and why. Two general strategies are suggested. The researcher can either follow the theoretical propositions that led to the case study or develop a descriptive framework to organize the case study. Within these strategies, there are four different techniques for analyzing the collected data. The first is pattern matching, which means to compare an empirical based pattern with a predictable one. The second technique is explanation building, which refers to a kind of pattern matching where the goal is to analyze the case study data by building an explanation about the case. The third is time-series analysis that refers to repeated measures of the dependent variable/variables in order to look at changes over time. The last technique is to use program logic models, which is a combination of pattern-matching and time-series analysis where the analysis specifies a complex chain of patterns over time. Data analysis of this thesis is based on the three steps defined by Miles Huberman (1994) i.e., data reduction, data display and conclusion. After completing the data collection I have organized the data for every case study based on the issues that has been selected from research model according to the research question and literature review. Within-case analysis I compared the findings of each case based on my research question and issues that selected from research model. Furthermore, I conducted a cross-case analysis to compare the different case study in order to find the resemblance and variation between the cases.

Cocaine Pharmacology and Effects on the Brain

Cocaine Pharmacology and Effects on the Brain Cocaine is a highly addictive substance abused worldwide. Its primary mechanism of action involves blockage of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin transporters in specific brain regions, mainly the dopamine reuptake system located on mesolimbic neurons. Cocaine increases the dopaminergic neurotransmission and triggers adaptive changes in several neuronal circuits underlying reinforcement, reward, sensitisation and the high addictive potential of cocaine. However, the long-lasting behavioural effects associate with cocaine addiction show there is complex neurotransmitters interaction within the reward circuit. Excitatory amino acid and inhibitory GABA transmitters also play a part in these changes. Glutamatergic systems regulate dopamine function, while GABAergic modulate the release of basal dopamine and glutamate. Understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms that lead to cocaine addiction has given new treatment methods in the pharmacological field to develop better med icine. Especially, useful monoamine agonists treatment may be successfully in controlling behaviour and lead to long term moderation of drug taking. However, more studies are needed in order to identify safe and efficacious pharmacotherapy. Introduction Cocaine, an alkaloid derived from the leaves of Erythroxylon coca is a psychostimulant drug linked to human addiction (Dackis et al., 2001). Cocaine acts as a local anaesthetic with sympathomimetic and vasoconstrictor properties (White and Lambe, 2003). In addition, cocaine is a potent uptake blocker for dopamine (DA), norepinephrine and serotonin (Carrera et al., 2004). As shown in figure one, the chemical structure of cocaine molecule contains two rings, the six-carbon phenyl ring shown on the right and the unusual nitrogen (N)-containing ring shown on the left, both necessary for its biological activity (Meyer and Quenzer, 2005). Cocaine acts by blocking the dopamine transporter within the mesocorticolimbic reward system. Blockade of the transporter increases the level of dopamine in this region of the brain. Increased dopamine level is responsible for the euphoric effect of cocaine (Butterner et al., 2003). However, the long lasting effects of behavioural characteristics of cocaine addiction, such as sensitisation and the vulnerability to the reinstatement of drug seeking years after the acute rewarding effects of the drug have disappeared, shows that there must be complex interactions between additional neurotransmitter systems (Kalivas, 2004). In contrast to dopaminergic system, excitatory amino acid and inhibitory GABA transmitters also play a role in these changes. Glutamatergic systems regulate dopamine function, while GABAergic modulate the release of basal dopamine and glutamate (Baler and Volkow, 2006). Additionally, cocaine can also interact with several receptors and ion channels, including nicotin ic acetylcholine, and opioid receptors coupled to voltage-gated Ca2+ and K+ channels (Kobayashi et al., 2007), resulting in prolonged elevation of extracellular dopamine. The potential abuse of cocaine is mainly based on the rapid development of tolerance to the euphoric effects (Butter et al., 2003). Cocaine addiction is an uncontrollable and continually relapsing drug taking disorder (Torregrossa and Kalivas, 2008). The behavioural manifestation of addiction is mediated by adaptations that chronic administration of drug abuse elicits at the level of individual neurons in the CNS. These adaptations alter the functional properties of neurons, which in turn change the properties of the functioning of neural circuits in the brain in which these neurons are involved (Nestler, 1997). The probability that one will become addicted to cocaine depends on the method, the frequency and the duration of ones cocaine intake (Carrea et al., 2004). Historical aspect of cocaine use The use of cocaine for personal satisfaction dated back over thousands of years ago, when Erythroxylon coca, the plant from which cocaine is extracted was used by indigenous people from Andes and South America for religious, mystical, social, and medical purposes (Dackis et al., 2001). The coca leaf was chewed by these communities because of its euphoric effects and its ability to reduce fatigue and hunger and to enable sustained periods of heavy labour (White and Lambe, 2003). This leaf was introduced in Europe in 1492 by the Spaniards, when they conquered South America and discovered that this leaf would be useful for performing hard labour (Julien et al., 2008). Eventually, the Spaniards started using the coca leaf as a method of payment for the native worker in gold and silver mine, who would take the leaf to reduce appetite and increase physical stamina. Cocaine alkaloid was first isolated by a German chemist Friedrich Gaedche in 1855 (Julien, 2008). The ability of cocaine in reducing fatigue and hunger were recognised by Sigmund Freud who used cocaine himself. Freud and others also recognised the ability of cocaine to cure opioid addiction. As a result, Freud prescribed cocaine to his patients who were addicted to morphine (Boghdadi and Henning, 1997). Unfortunately, many of these patients became addicted to cocaine themselves (Grilly, 1998). Morphine, which is similar to cocaine in reducing hunger, was extracted from opium in the early 1800s by Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertà ¼rner. But its use spread in 1853 when the hypodermic needle was developed (Grilly, 1998). Morphine was used as a pain reliever and as a cure for opium and alcohol addiction. Its extensive use during the American Civil war resulted with people suffering from the soldiers disease (addiction), (Julien et al, 2008). Forms of cocaine The use of crack cocaine, or crack, was first reported in 1980 in Europe and the US as a new drug with rapid stimulating effects. Crack cocaine is a by-product of cocaine, C17H21NO4 (figure 1). However, crack is formed through different processes. First, the coca leaves are transformed into a product known as basic cocaine paste. The paste is then turned into either crack cocaine through chemical treatment with sodium bicarbonate, or into a less potent water soluble salt, cocaine hydrochloride when it is refined with either acetone or sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. The powdered hydrochloride salt can be snorted, and because it is water soluble, it can be injected intravenously (Boghdadi et al., 1997). However, in the hydrochloride form, cocaine decomposes when it is heated and is destroyed to temperature, making it unsuitable for use by inhalation. In contrast, crack cocaine is converted to a stable vapour by heating it (Julien et al., 2008), making it more potent than the concentrated form. The paste and crack cocaine forms can be smoked either on their own or together with tobacco or cannabis-marijuana and sometime mixed with heroin and sold on the street (Goldstein et al., 2009). Cocaine hydrochloride compared to crack cocaine, is less potent and it is used as a local anaesthetic. Its use as anaesthetic first came about in 1884, after Niemann described its anaesthetic properties such as bitter taste and the resultant unusual numbness when applied to the tongue (Goldstein et al., 2009). By the late 1800s, when morphine was already used as a pain reliever, the use of cocaine for its analgesic properties which includes nerve blocking anaesthesia, epidural, and spinal anaesthesia has began to spread (Goldstein et al., 2009). Both cocaine hydrochloride and morphine are still used medically today as anaesthetic, despite their addictive properties. Cocaine hydrochloride is used as a vasoconstricting anaesthetic agent in surgery for ears, nose, and throat (White et al., 2003), while morphine is used as anaesthetic to relieve severe pain. Morphine acts through mu, kappa, and delta opioid receptor to block pain messages to the central and peripheral nervous system (Jul ien et al., 2008), However, morphine produces euphoria by interacting mainly with the mu opioid receptor (rosin et al., 2000). Aim: The aim of this project is to view the complex interaction between cocaine and cocaine receptors and the mechanisms of action of cocaine. Special emphasis will be placed on cocaine tolerance and addiction. To begin with, an overview will be provided on the pharmacokinetics of cocaine by discussing how it is absorbed, distributed, metabolised and excreted. Then, a discussion on how cocaine-induced changes in the peripheral and central nervous system contribute to the euphoric effect and addiction. Finally, an overview of how cocaine dependency could be treated. Pharmacokinetics of cocaine The effect of cocaine on the body depends heavily on the rate of accumulation and the concentration of cocaine at its site of action (the brain) and the duration of contact at these sites (Grilly, 1998). The pharmacokinetics of cocaine refers to its movement in the body with respect to its absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion from the body and this is dependent on multiple factor such as, route of administration, genetics, and consumption of cocaine (Goldstein et al., 2009). Route of Administration/ Absorption As illustrated in figure two, cocaine is rapidly absorbed from the mucous membranes, the stomach and the lungs. Therefore, cocaine can be snorted, smoked, taken orally, or injected intravenously (Julien et al., 2008). However, the onset and duration of cocaine depends on the method of intake (Grilly, 2006). Cocaine hydrochloride poorly crosses the mucosal membranes when snorted, due to its vasoconstriction properties, thereby constricting blood vessels and limiting its own absorption. Because of the slow absorption of cocaine, its euphoric effect is prolonged when administered intranasally (Boghdadi et al., 1997). Cocaine can be also smoked in the form of crack. Because of its rapid absorption in the pulmonary vascular bed, crack produces an intense high in seconds, peaks at 5 minutes and persists for about 30 minutes. Intravenous injection of cocaine hydrochloride bypasses all the barriers to absorption, placing the total dose of drug immediately into the bloodstream. It produces euphoria in 30-45 seconds (Julien et al., 2008). Distribution After administration, cocaine rapidly penetrates the brain. Initial brain concentrations far exceed the concentration in plasma (Julien et al, 2008). After it penetrates the brain, cocaine is rapidly redistributed to other tissues such as the spleen, kidney, and lungs. Cocaine also binds to plasma protein, albumin and also to ÃŽÂ ±1-acid glycoprotein (Boghdadi et al., 1997). Metabolism Drugs taken orally initially pass through the liver (Figure 2), where they may be metabolised before entering the blood. Cocaine is metabolised primarily into ecgonine methyl ester and benzoylecgonine (Figure 3), the main urinary metabolite of cocaine and can be detected in urine for about 48 hours and up to 2 weeks in chronic users (Butttner et al., 2003). Cocaine is catalysed to ecgonine methyl ester by serum and liver cholinesterases, while benzoylecgonine is hydrolysed non-enzymaticaly (Carrera et al., 2004). Benzoylecgonine have vasoconstrictive properties, however it does not appear to cross the blood-brain barrier readily (Goldstein et al., 2009.). In addition, cocaine is demethylated to formed norcocaine (Figure 3) (Carrera et al., 2004), the only metabolite of cocaine that crosses the blood-brain barrier (Flowler et al., 2001). In the presence of ethanol, cocaine is metabolized to cocaethylene (Buttner et al, 2003). Cocaethylene is as active as cocaine in blocking the presynaptic dopamine reuptake transporter, thereby potentiating the euphoric effect of cocaine, increasing the risk of dual dependency and the severity of withdrawal with chronic patterns of use. This metabolite is more toxic than cocaine and aggravates cocaines toxicity. The half-life of cocaethylene is about 150 minutes, outlasting cocaine in the body (Julien et al., 2008). Even though cocaines plasma half-life is about 50 minutes, several metabolites can be detected by way of urinalysis for up to 2 to 5 days after cocaine overdose (Grilly, 2006). Mechanism of actions of cocaine Cocaines euphoric and reinforcing properties are the result of the obstruction of dopamine transporter (Butterner et al., 2003), thus, increasing dopamine level within the mesolimbic dopamine pathways. The mesolimbic dopamine pathways, shown in figure4, are composed of ventral tegmental area (VTA), the prefrontal cortex (PFC), Hipocampus, amygdale, and the nucleus accumbens (NAc) (Cornish and Kalivas, 2001) (figure 5). The nucleus accumbens (NAc) which consists of two sub-regions, the core and the shell, is believed to be the site for both the primary reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse and conditioned control over drug seeking (Kalivas, 2004). Normally, Dopamine is released into the synapse from an axon terminal in response to a pleasurable signal (Dackis and OBrien, 2001). Once this neurotransmitter is released, it diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind to their respective receptors, D1 and D2 receptors (Howell* and Kimmel, 2008), which are linked to the cAMP second messengers system via membrane-bound G-proteins. D1family receptors (D1 and D5) are coupled to a stimulatory G-protein (Gs), which when activated increases the production of adenylate cyclase and cAMP and stimulation of the D2 family receptors (D2, D3, and D4) leads to the inhibition of adenylate cyclase through activation of an inhibitory G-protein (Gi/Go) (Cunningham and Kelley, 1993). Dopamine is taking back into the presynaptic neurons through the dopamine transporter, as a result shutting off the signal between neurons by preventing new dopamine to be formed (Howell* and Kimmel, 2008). Cocaine, on the other hand, blocks the dopamine transporter (figure 5), preventing the reuptake of dopamine into the presynaptic neurons of the VTA. Blockade of the transporter augment dopamine level in the synaptic clefts, producing continuous stimulation of dopamine receptors (Anderson and Pierce, 2005). Increasing dopamine concentration in the nucleus accumbens is responsible for the euphoric and reinforcing effects of cocaine. Behavioural sensitisation Repeated cocaine treatment increases dopamine levels in the synaptic cleft, which could lead to further stimulation of the dopamine receptors, causing more intense but shorter behavioural responses (Anderson and Pierce, 2005). This progressive change in behavioural response following repeated cocaine administration is known as behavioural sensitisation or reverse tolerance. The enduring neuronal adaptation in the reward circuit that occur after repeated cocaine administration is believed to be associated with motive and reward (Morgan and Roberts, 2004). The neuroadaptations that result in behavioural sensitization is characterised by two processes, known as initiation and expression (Anderson and Pierce, 2005). Initiation, which takes place in the VTA, is referred to as temporary cellular and molecular changes, such as alteration in various genes, second messenger cascades and receptors densities, which occur in response to psychostimulant administration, while expression is the lon g-lasting neuronal changes that start from the VTA and progress to the nucleus accumbens and striatum to increase behavioural response (Pierce and Kalivas, 1997). It has been reported that repeated cocaine treatment for two weeks increases the sensitivity of dopamine D1 receptors in the olfactory tubercle, nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, and substantia nigra and subsensitivity of D2 receptor (Unterwald et al., 1996). Activation of D1 receptors stimulates adenylyl cyclase activity via activation of Gs; increasing sensitivity of D1 and also increased adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP-dependent protein Kinase (PKA) activity in the nucleus accumbens due to continual activation of Gs protein (Cunningham and Kelley, 1993). However, continuous cocaine treatment decreased D1-like receptor density and function, thereby initiated behavioural tolerance (Keys, and Ellison, 1994). Increased release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens is also calcium-dependent and relies upon activation of calcium-dependent proteins, calmodulin and calcium-calmodulin kinase II (CaM-KII (Pierce and Kalivas, 1997). It is generally believed that increased calcium conductant and activation of calcium-dependent protein kinase are involved in the release of neurotransmitters in presynaptic nerve terminals and initiation of gene transcription (Evans and Zamponi, 2006). Therefore, continuous activation of calmodulin and CaM-KII by cocaine in the nucleus accumbens may mediate the release of dopamine or other neurotransmitters such as glutamate and GABA that are associated with expression of behavioural sensitisation (Pierce and Kalivas, 1997). D1 receptors located on GABA and glutamate afferents to the VTA are responsible for the release of these neurotransmitters in the nucleus accumbens when activated. Interaction between these neurotransmitters in the VTA changes the regulation of dopamine cell, which initiate long-term neuroadaptations (Cornish and Kalivas, 2001). Glutamatergic systems Excitatory amino acid such as glutamate acts as the main mediators of excitatory signals in the central nervous system (Baler and Volkow, 2006). Glutamate is known to produce its action through ionotropic (NMDA and non-NMDA) and metabotropic (mGluR) subclasses receptors (Danbolt, 1997). Although cocaine does not have a direct influence on brain glutamate systems, repeated exposure to cocaine results in alterations in glutaminergic transmission in the nucleus accumbens (Schmidt et al., 2005). However, the PFC, which transmits major glutaminergic projections to the nucleus accumbens (figure 4) has been most implicated in the regulation of dopamine released from dopamine cell terminals through NMDA and non-NMDA receptors (Kalivas, 1997). It is believed that stimulation of NMDA receptors through a voltage-dependent calcium channel initiate burst firing model in dopamine cells, as a result increasing accumbal dopamine release which is similar to what occurs in behavioural sensitisation (E vans and Zamponi, 2006). Administration of cocaine increases dopamine release presynaptically, which stimulates dopamine D1 receptors, located on descending glutamatergic afferent terminals from the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The D1 receptor in turn, stimulates the release of glutamate in the prefrontal cortex postsynaptic neuron. The released glutamate activates NMDA receptors on the dopaminergic dendrites in this brain area. This sequence of events is augmented by the fact that repeated cocaine administration desensitises dopamine D2 autoreceptors. Desensitisation of D2 receptor reduces the hyper-polarisation of dopamine cells, thereby allowing a further augmentation of dopamine release, which causes supersensitivity of D1 receptors, hence, increasing NMDA activity (Johnson and North, 1992). Because the neuronal circuits are interconnected (figure 5), a reduction in PFC dopamine transmission will activate the nucleus accumbens dopamine release, leading to expression of behavioural sensitisation. Increased glutamate release from the PFC to nucleus accumbens core is associated with cocaine-induced reinstatement and expression of locomotor sensitisation (Torregrossa and Kalivas, 2008). Both Glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons are also joined in the prefrontal cortex, indicating a possible interaction between glutamate and GABA. Therefore, the PFC GABA transmission may also be involved in the development of behavioural sensitisation (Giorgi et al., 2005). GABA systems It has been reported that cocaine sensitisation is linked with a cocaine-induced increased glutamate and GABA levels in the PFC. This was supported by Jayaram and Steketee (2005), who observed an increase in both glutamate and GABA concentration in the prefrontal cortex of animals withdrawn from repeated daily cocaine after the first week following repeated exposure to cocaine, but increase in these neurotransmitters were not observed after prolonged withdrawal. Furthermore, Jayaram and Steketee reported that the AMPA/KA receptor antagonist, (DNQX) prevent cocaine from increase the concentration of GABA in the prefrontal cortex in cocaine-sensitised animals. Therefore, increasing the response of GABAergic neurons in the PFC is a consequence of enhance glutamate level in prefrontal cortex. Because the AMPA/KA receptor antagonists seem to block cocaine from augmenting GABA levels, it can be concluded that glutamate acts mainly through AMPA/KA receptors to increase GABAergic activity in the prefrontal cortex. However, decrease in GABAÃŽÂ ² receptors function in the PFC is also associated with sensitisation of locomotors. It is believed that a loss in GABAÃŽÂ ² function in the prefrontal cortex would lead to a decrease in inhibitory modulation of excitatory pyramidal output neurons in the PFC (Badran et al., 1997), and therefore, a simultaneous increase in glutamatergic transmission in subcortical regions associated with the expression of behavioural sensitisation (McFarland et al., 2003). Glutamatergic, GABAergic and midbrain dopamine neurons are joined onto dendritic spines of medium spiny neurons that contain GABA, and endogenous opioid peptides. These opioid-containing neurons project directly to the substantia nigra and VTA to synapse on dopamine cells (Yung and Bolam, 2000). Therefore, alteration of endogenous opioid may participate in the development of drug abuse. Opioid systems It has been suggested that dopamine and opioid act together to modulate locomotion, mood and motivated behavioural, therefore, modification of the endogenous opioids participate in the development of drug of abuse. In addition the opioid system could also influence drug craving and relapse by altering stress physiology (Rosin et al. 2000). Apart from dopaminergic system, the endogenous opioid system is also a major player in addiction. Opioid system consists of three G-protein coupled receptors, termed mu (ÃŽÂ ¼), kappa (ÃŽÂ º), and delta (ÃŽÂ ´) opioid receptors. They act through G-protein second messenger systems (Go/Gi) to inhibit adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP (Contet et al., 2004). Activation of these receptors on presynaptic axon terminals inhibits the Ca2+ influx that underlies release of neurotransmitters (Evans and Zamponi, 2006). At the postsynaptic membrane, their activation hyperpolarises the membranes by enhancing K+ flow out of neurons (Taddese et al., 1995) mu ( µ)-opioid receptor Mu ( µ) opioid receptors mediate positive reinforcement following direct morphine or indirect alcohol, cannabinoids and nicotine activation (Jullien et al, 2008). The positive reinforcing and euphoric effect of morphine involved dopaminergic as well as mu opioid receptors. Morphine activates ÃŽÂ ¼-opioid receptors through inhibitory Go/Gi protein, which decreases the level of adenylate cyclase and the cAMP pathways in the VTA (Contet et al, 2004). Because opioid and GABA containing-neurons also project in the VTA, activation of  µ receptor inhibits the release of GABA on dopamine, leading to high level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and other area. The increase in dopamine level in the nucleus accumbens leads to the positive reinforcement of opioid addiction (Bartoletti et al., 1999), which is also related to cocaine reinforcing effect (Julien et al., 2008). Stimulation of  µ opioid receptor in the VP is thought to promote motor activity, in part, by red ucing presynaptic release of GABA (Torregrossa and Kalivas, 2008). Repeated cocaine administration results in reduced extracellular GABA in the VP due to increasing stimulation of presynaptic  µ opioid receptors (Tang, et al. 2005). 2. K-opioid receptors ÃŽÅ ¡-opioid receptor system is essential in regulating presynaptic dopamine release and administration of dynorphin (DYN) within the nucleus accumbens (Shippenberg and Rea, 1997). DYN, endogenous ligand for the ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptor prevents the sensitisation that develops to locomotor stimulatory and conditioned reinforcing effect of cocaine. Anatomical studies have shown interaction between the mesolimbic dopamine neurons and neurons containing the opioid peptide dynorphin (Yung and Bolam, 2000. As mentioned above, dynorphin are found in dentritic spine of medium spiny neurons and project to the VTA and nucleus accumbens in which ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptors are expressed. However, the accumbens shell express high density of ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptors (Jayaram and Steketee,). Microdialysis studies have shown that the systemic administration of selective ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptor agonists such as U50488 and U69593 depress the firing rate of mesolimbic dopamine neurons and decreases dopamine overflow in the nucleus accumbens (Shippenberg and Rea, 1997). Therefore, activation of ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptor will inhibit dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. However, Kuzmin et al., 1997 showed that acute administration of selective ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptor antagonist, nor-binaltorphimine increases dopamine overflow within the nucleus accumbens. In addition to these findings, it is believed that dopamine D1 or D2 receptor agonist, apomorphine, increases dynophin immunoreactivity and prodynorphin mRNA in the nucleus (Li et al., 1990). Therefore, repeated administration of cocaine increases prodynorphin mRNA in the nucleus accumbens and striatum. Taken in to account all these findings, and the role of ÃŽÂ º-opioid receptors in presynaptic modulation of dopamine release, it can be concluded that an increase in the extracellular level of dopamine within the nucleus accumbens results in a compensatory increase in the activity of dynorphinergic neurons. However, this increase is insufficient to prevent the development of behavioural sensitisation. Because many of the above intracellular adaptation involve changes in protein levels, it can be though that regulation of gene expression may be involved in the long-lasting effects of cocaine. Cocaine regulates gene expression It has been reported that one of the early molecular events following cocaine administration is the activation of nuclear protein (CREB) (Konradi et al., 1994). CREB control the changing that occur in synaptic neurons through modulation of the expression of several cAMP-inducible genes. CREB is regulated via phosphorylation at serine-133 (Konradi et al., 1994) The kinase inducible domain (KID) that contains serine-133 amino acid residue is phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases II and IV (CaMK II and IV) (Lonze and Ginty, 2002). Phosphorylation of CREB by PKA and CaMK II and IV results in the expression of immediate early genes (IEGs) including Fos and Jun, which are members of the transcription factor activator protein-1 (AP-1) family (Soderling, 1999). Acute cocaine administration activates DNA-binding activity of the AP-1 and expression c-Fos, FosB and JunB proteins (Hope et al., 1992). Chronic cocaine exposure is believed to reduce the capability of cocaine to express c-Fos, JunB and FosB proteins. This results in prolonged accumulation of à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  FosB proteins (a shorter splice-variant of FosB), which produces more persistent AP-1 complex (Hiroi et al., 1997). Prolonged accumulation of à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  FosB was reported in a variety of knockout and transgenic mice studies. Hiroi et al (1997) showed that mice lacking Fos-B and its shorter splice- variant à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Fos-B had reduced AP-1 complexes following chronic cocaine exposure and increases cocaine-mediated hyper-locomotion and conditioned place (CPP) preference. They also observed that the long-term over expression of à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  Fos-B increases AP-1 complexes and behavioural sensitisation in both the nucleus accumbens and striatum. Increased neuronal expression of Fos in these regions after cocaine treatment is mediated by increasing D1 dopamine receptor activation, due to high level of extracellular dopamine. Desensitisation Chronic cocaine administration repeatedly stimulates dopamine receptors, as a result, decreases the concentration of dopamine within mesolimbic system and the remaining receptors become less sensitive to dopamine. Decrease in dopamine concentration leads to tolerance. This has been reported in several studies. For example, Maisonneuve et al (1995) observed a reduction in the basal dopamine concentration of rats nucleus accumbens when 10 or 15 mg/kg of cocaine was administered three times every day per hour for 13 days. Additionally, Inada et al (1992) showed that repeated cocaine administration in rats, reduced dopamine response to cocaine striatum 24 h after withdrawal. Decrease in dopaminergic level also leads to behavioural tolerance. Tolerance Tolerance refers to a decrease in response to cocaine due to repeated exposure of the drug (Maisonneuve et al., 1995). The major contributory factor to tolerance is the supersensitivity of D2-like autoreceptors as a result of D1 receptors desensitisation after chronic cocaine treatment (King et al., 1994). King et al showed that following chronic administration of 40 mg/kg of cocaine per day, for 7 days, increases sensitivity of D2-1ike receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Increasing D2 receptors leads to a transient decrease in the levels of GiÃŽÂ ± and GoÃŽÂ ± proteins linked to these receptors (King et al., 1994). Continuous cocaine administration produces tolerance to the inhibitory effects of cocaine on dopamine uptake in striatum and nucleus accumbens. Therefore, blockade of dopamine uptake by cocaine produces a compensatory increase of dopamine reuptake transporters (Letchworth et al, 2001). However, repeated cocaine treatment decreases the mRNA expression of dopamine transporter in the VTA neurons that project to the limbic brain regions during withdraw (Hammer et al., 1997). Polymorphism in the genes of dopamine transporter (DAT1) and receptors could be implicated in the genetic susceptibility to the complications of long-term development use in different individual (Wang et al., 2004). There are two main types of DAT1 genes, the SLC6A3 gene and the 3 untranslated VNTR polymorphism. The SLC6A3 is localised to chromosome 5p15.3 and genetic variation in SLC6A3 are thought to change the expression of DAT1 (Fuke et al., 2001). The variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism in the 3untranslated region of DAT1 consists of a 40-bp repetitive sequence and can vary from 3 to 12 repeats. However the two most common alleles are the 9-repeat and the 10-repeat, and several studies have linked these polymorphisms to prolonged psychosis following stimulant withdrawal. Fuke et al (2001) reported that the 10-repeat allele (10R) enhances the expression of the DAT1 protein, while Michelhaugh et al (2001) claimed that the 9-repeat allele (9R) enhanced the DAT1 expression. However both studies found that the DAT1 VNTR is associated with drug addictions. The gene for D2 dopamine receptor (DRD2), TaqI A (rs1800497) is a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) with two variant; A1, the less frequent allele, and A2, the commoner allele. Accumulative evidence from post-mortem brain samples using a [3H] binding ligand and in living subjects using positron emission tomography (PET) showed that the presence of the A1 allele leads to a decrease in D2 dopamine receptor density, as a consequence of chronic cocaine treatment (Thompson et al. 1997). Therefore, the DRD2 A1 allele is implicated in addictive behaviours. Several studies on different populations suggested that the involvement of TaqI A and VNT